The consequences of exposure for children’s health include birth defects from prenatal exposures , neurological damage in younger children, and cancer . Vector-borne pathogens include Lyme disease, highest among 5–9-year-olds , and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, most prevalent under age 10 .
Public health interventions addressing these factors, from seat belts to traffic signals and from law enforcement to public education and the development of bike paths, have achieved dramatic reductions in injury and fatality rates . School-age children spend 35 to 50 hours per week in and around school buildings. In some communities, schools have been built on relatively undesirable land, such as landfill sites like Love Canal. Schools are often located on old industrial sites or near highways, resulting in exposure to auto emissions and air pollution . Many school buildings are old and poorly maintained, leading to exposures to air pollutants, radon, asbestos, pesticides, and lead .
A parent can pass on a defective or abnormal gene or set of genes, a malfunction can occur during combination of maternal and paternal DNA, or exposure to an outside substance or condition can occur after conception that alters the genes in the fetus. Moreover, inferences about the relative importance of the variety of influences are heavily dependent on the nature of the theoretical models that underlie statistical analysis. If more proximal influences are mixed with more distal ones, they may appear to have stronger effects, even in situations in which more distal factors are operating on a multiplicity of proximal influences and therefore have cumulatively greater effect overall. Thus, future research should adapt more appropriate pathway techniques to help to sort out the patterns by which the influences interact to produce different states of health.
Cat scratch disease, carried by cats, has an estimated annual incidence of 22,000 cases, with the highest age-specific incidence in children less than age 10. Heavy drinking during pregnancy is the cause of fetal alcohol syndrome , the leading known cause of mental retardation (Abel and Sokol, 1987; Sokol, Delaney-Black, and Nordstrom, 2003).
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Conservative estimates place the incidence of FAS at 0.33/1,000 live births . More common effects include alcohol-related birth defects, alcohol-related neuro-developmental defects, and subtle effects on a variety of behavioral, educational, and psychological tests resulting from low to moderate levels of drinking during pregnancy . The importance of cognitive ability and understanding inappropriate health-related behaviors must also be considered. Conversely, children with developmental disabilities or impaired language ability often show increased difficulties in adhering to necessary behaviors, including health-maintaining ones . Attempts to make this transition are met with a variety of parental and cultural responses, all of which influence infants in ways that facilitate or impede their development.
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- For example, they were assigned female at birth based on being born with a vagina and know themselves to be female.Non-BinarySomeone who does not identify as a man or a woman, or solely as one of those two genders.
- It’s often used as an umbrella term for identities that fall outside the male/female gender binary.
- Gender expression is not related to someone’s gender or sex, but rather about personal anemia test behaviours and interests.
- This identity is often related to or in reaction to the social construction of gender, gender stereotypes and the gender binary system.Gender expressionGender expression is about how someone acts and presents themselves to world.
- Being non-binary means different things to different people, so this definition is purposely broad.
Often these health behaviors are considered proxies for health, even though they may not necessarily constitute health per se. Some health policies attempt to change youth behaviors that are thought to affect health.
The U.S. General Accounting Office reported that 20 percent of primary and secondary schools had indoor air quality problems; more than half had environmental pollutant or building ventilation problems that could affect air quality (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1995). Radon above the EPA’s action level was found in 2.7 percent of schools surveyed during the 1990–1991 school year (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). Asbestos, used extensively in schools until the 1970s, was still present in more than 8,500 schools in 1980, potentially exposing over 3 million students (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987). Natural sources include radon, cosmic radiation, and ingested radon and fallout.
An example is the requirement for regular school attendance, which may both reflect current health and exert effects on a given child’s likelihood of future health. In contrast, disruption of maternal bonding during infancy has been shown to have profound negative effects on later relationships . Genes may confer susceptibility only during a specific span of time, referred to as a critical period. The complex interrelationships between genetics and environmental stimuli are not clearly defined and are an active area of current research. Disruptions in genes can be caused by events before, during, or after conception and may produce disorders immediately or later in life.
Longitudinal national survey studies reveal that children reared in families with two biological parents tend to complete more schooling and engage in less risky behavior , particularly if their SES is high. The determinants of motor-vehicle-related injuries and fatalities are well recognized. Some relate to behavioral issues, such as speeding, failing to yield to pedestrians at crossings, and driving while intoxicated; others relate to automobile design and features, including impact absorption, seat belts, air bags, and similar features.
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